1 Introduction: Fundamentals of Nuclear Physics
1.1 Natural Stable and Radioactive Isotopes
1.2 Nuclear Reactions and Sources of Radioactivity
1.3 Laws of Radioactive Decay and Attenuation of Radiation
1.4 Measurement Techniques and Health Hazards
Part I Use of Nuclear Techniques for Determination of Soil Properties
2 Methods Based on the Absorption of the Gamma-Ray Beam by Matter
2.1 Main Principles
2.2 Transmission of Narrow and Broad Gamma-Ray Beams through Matter
2.3 Mass Absorption Coefficients of Rocks
2.4 Sensitivity of the Method
2.5 Deviations from the Mean Density
2.6 Determination of Soil Density by Gamma-Ray Absorption
2.7 Studies of Moisture Content Dynamics in Soil
2.8 Determination of the Amount of Water Stored in Snow Cover
2.9 Studies of the Evaporation Process
3 The Gamma-Ray Back-Scattering Method
3.1 Principles and Range of Application
3.2 Optimal Parameters of Measuring Probe
3.3 Design of Gamma-Ray Density Gauges and the Range of their Application
3.3.1 Surface Type Gamma Ray Density Gauges
3.3.2 Gamma-Ray Density Gauges Used in Wells
3.3.3 Gamma-Ray Density Gauges for Direct Insertion into the Ground
3.4 Technological Aspects of Measurement and Calibration
4 Neutron Back-Scattering Method
4.1 Principles and Range of Application
4.2 Optimal Parameters of Measuring Probe
4.2.1 Sensitivity of the Method
4.2.2 Maximum Working Depth
4.2.3 Effects of Parameters of the Medium
4.3 Design of Neutron Moisture Gauges
4.4 Possible Errors in the Moisture Content Measured by the Neutron Method
4.5 Calibration of Neutron Moisture Gauges
Part II Penetration Logging Techniques
5 Penetration Logging Methods and Equipment
5.1 Essence of Penetration Logging Techniques and Conditions of Application
5.2 Experimental Penetration Logging Rig SUGP-10
5.3 The Penetration Logging Rig and Equipment SPK
5.4 The Submerged Penetration Logging Rig PSPK-69 Mounted on
the Exploration Catamaran Type Ship "Geologist-1"
6 Theoretical Basis of Penetration Logging Tests
6.1 Solutions Based on the Theory of Ultimate Equilibrium
6.2 Imbedding of Spherical Probe into an Infinite Elastic Medium
6.3 Imbedding of Spherical Probe into Elastic-Creeping Medium
6.4 Two-Dimensional Axis-Symmetric Problem of Relaxation Stress
6.5 Conditions for Measuring Ground Parameters by Static Penetration
7 Experimental Studies and Interpretation of Penetration Logging Data
7.1 Density, Moisture, Porosity, Groundwater Level
7.2 Influence of Sounding Parameters on Ground Resistance and Friction
7.3 Modulus of Ground Compressibility
7.4 Ground Shear and Rheology Parameters
7.5 Normal Pressure
7.6 Lithology Stratification
8 Application of Penetration Logging Techniques in Geoengineering Exploration
8.1Geological and Geographical Conditions for Application of Penetration Logging
8.2 Practical Applications
8.3 Engineering Geological and Hydrogeological Mapping
8.3.1 Study for Irrigation Land Projects
8.3.2 Study for Drainage Land Projects
8.3.3 Geoengineering Studies in a Region of Glacial Sediments
8.3.4 Prospecting for Building Construction
8.3.5 Study of a Landslide Slope
8.3.6 Study of Bottom Marine Sediments at Novorossiysk Port
8.3.7 Study of Novorossiysk Oil Jetty Structures
8.4 Combined Application of Penetration Logging and Traditional
Geophysical Methods
Part III Natural Isotopes in Environmental Studies
9 Stable Isotopes in Study of Global Hydrological Cycle
9.1 Separation of Hydrogen and Oxygen Isotopes at Phase Transition of Water
9.2 Isotopic Composition of Ocean Water
9.3 Isotopic Composition of Atmospheric Moisture
9.4 Isotopic Composition of Continental Surface Waters
9.5 Isotopic Composition of Water in Evaporating Basins
9.6 Isotopic Composition of Water in Unsaturated and Saturated Zones
9.7. Isotopic Composition of Formation Waters
9.8 Isotopic Composition of Groundwater in Volcanic Regions
9.8.1 Isotopes in Studying the Origin of Thermal Waters
9.8.2 Isotopic Geothermometers
10 Cosmogenic Radioisotopes for Study of the Genesis and Dynamics of Water
10.1 Origin and Distribution of Cosmogenic Radioisotopes
10.2 Sources of Tritium Discharge into Natural Waters
10.3 Global Circulation of Tritium Water
10.3.1 Tritium in Atmospheric Hydrogen and Methane
10.3.2 Tritium in Atmospheric Water Vapour
10.3.3 Tritium in Precipitation
10.3.4 Formation of Tritium Concentrations in the Atmosphere
10.4 Tritium in Ocean Waters
10.5 Tritium in Continental Surface Waters
10.5.1 Tritium Contents in River Water
10.5.2 Tritium in Lakes and Reservoirs
10.6 Tritium in Groundwaters
10.7 Dating by Tritium
10.7.1 Piston Flow Model
10.7.2 Dispersive Model
10.7.3 Complete Mixing Model
10.7.4 Symmetrical Binominal Age Distribution Model
10.7.5 Model of Mixing Waters of Different Ages
10.7.6 Complicated Model
10.8 Radiocarbon in Natural Waters
10.8.1 Origin and Distribution of Radiocarbon in Nature
10.8.2 Natural Variations of Radiocarbon in the Atmosphere and Biosphere
10.8.3 Natural Radiocarbon in Oceans
10.8.4 Technogenic Radiocarbon in the Atmosphere and Oceans
10.8.5 Forecast of Carbon Dioxide Increase in the Atmosphere
10.8.6 Principles of Radiocarbon Dating
10.8.7 Radiocarbon Dating of Groundwater
10.9 Other Cosmogenic Radioisotopes
11 Radiogenic Isotopes in Dating of Natural Waters and Sediments
11.1 Production and Distribution of Radiogenic Isotopes
11.2 Separation of Radiogenic Isotopes
11.2.1 Separation of Uranium Isotopes
11.2.2 Separation of Thorium Isotopes
11.2.3 Separation of Radium Isotopes
11.3 Distribution of Radiogenic Isotopes in Natural Waters
11.3.1 Uranium Isotopes in Natural Waters
11.3.2 Thorium Isotopes in Natural Waters
11.4 Dating of Surface and Groundwaters
11.4.1 Dating of Closed Reservoirs
11.4.2 Dating of Groundwater
11.5 Dating of Sediments
11.5.1 Uranium-Uranium Method
11.5.2 Uranium-Ionium Method
11.6 Radiogenic Isotopes as Indicators of Hydrologic Processes
Part IV Other Applications
12 Radioactive Contamination of Natural Waters
12.1 Sources of Radioactive Contamination of Water
12.1.1 Nature and Properties of Radioactive Effluents
12.1.2 Future Developments in Nuclear Technology and
Disposal of Effluents
12.2 Migration of Radioactive-Effluent Components through Soil and Ground
12.2.1 Migration Activity
12.2.2 Natural Mineral Sorbents
12.2.3 Natural Organic Sorbents
12.3 Estimation of Absorbing Properties of Soil and Ground and Migration
Activity of Radioactive Micro-components
12.3.1 Determining the Absorption Capacity
12.3.2 Absorption Capacity of Soil and Ground for Components of
Contaminants
12.3.3 Absorption of Radioactive Components under Dynamic Conditions
13 Induced-Activity Method for Analysis of Rocks and Groundwaters
13.1 Principles and Range of Application
13.2 Activation Reactions in Principal Rock-Forming Elements and Water
13.3 Theory of the Method
13.4 Laboratory Activation Analysis for Aluminium and Silicon
Conclusions
Subject index
