Acknowledgments xvii
Preface xix
About the Companion Website xxi
Part I The Ocean Domain: Introduction to Planet Ocean 1
1 The Life Aquatic 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Comparison Between Sea and Land 3
1.3 Fractal Complexity of Marine and Terrestrial Ecosystems 6
2 The Seabed 13
2.1 Ocean Basins 13
2.2 Ocean Bottom: A (Mostly) Static Habitat of Ocean Life 15
2.3 Characteristics of Sediments 20
2.4 Boundary Layers and Their Characteristics 20
2.5 Sediment Movement 23
2.6 Characteristics of Hard Substrata 26
2.7 Characteristics of Soft Sediments 26
3 The Water Column 29
3.1 Properties and Characteristics of Seawater 29
3.2 An Ocean In Motion 44
Part II Life in Seas and Oceans: Fundamentals of Marine Biology 53
4 General Adaptations in Marine Organisms I: From the Ocean Surface to the Seabed 55
4.1 Adaptations to Temperature 55
4.2 Adaptations to Low Oxygen Concentrations 60
4.3 Adaptation to Salinity 64
4.4 Adaptation to Pressure 68
4.5 Adaptations to Light 69
4.6 Adaptations to Nutrients 73
4.7 Electrical Conductivity Adaptations 74
4.8 Ectocrine Adaptations 74
4.9 Adaptations to Produce Sound and Communicate in Water 74
5 Adaptations in Marine Organisms II: Life in a Fluid Habitat 79
5.1 Adaptions to Life in the Water Column 79
6 Adaptations in Marine Organisms III: Benthic Biota between a Rock and a Soft Place 91
6.1 Adaptations to Life on the Seafloor 91
6.2 Support and Protection Structures 91
6.3 Adaptation to Waves and Energy 94
6.4 Feeding and Nutrition 95
6.5 Adaptation to Aerial Exposure 98
6.6 Adaptation to Extreme Temperatures and Potentially Toxic Chemicals 98
Part IIB Life in Seas and Oceans: Fundamentals of Marine Biology 101
7 Marine Biodiversity 103
7.1 Introduction 103
7.2 Origin and Evolution of Marine Life 103
7.3 Mechanisms of Marine Speciation 107
7.4 Quantifying Marine Organism Biodiversity 113
8 Biodiversity Patterns 125
8.1 Broad-Scale Biodiversity Patterns 125
8.2 Processes Controlling the Distribution of Marine Biodiversity 125
8.3 Marine Biogeography 128
8.4 Theories on Evolution and Maintenance of Biodiversity: The Deep-Sea as Examplar 136
9 Biodiversity of the Benthos 141
9.1 Introduction: Benthos and Plankton 141
9.2 Benthic Biota 141
9.3 Classification of Benthos Based on Size 144
Part IIC Life in Seas and Oceans: Fundamentals of Marine Biology 157
10 Ecology of Benthos 159
10.1 Ecology of the Benthos: From Microbes to Megafauna 159
10.2 Trophic Groups: Classification of Benthos Based on Diet 164
10.3 Comparison Between Hard and Soft Bottom Benthos 165
10.4 Ecology of Benthos Inhabiting Soft Bottoms 167
10.5 Changes in Benthos in Space and Time 170
10.6 Organization of Benthic Assemblages 171
10.7 Zonation of Benthic Organisms 172
11 Biodiversity of the Plankton 179
11.1 Introduction to the Plankton 179
11.2 Planktonic Organisms 180
11.3 Planktonic Classification Based on Water Column Distributions 181
11.4 Plankton Classification Based on Life Cycles 182
11.5 Plankton Size Classes 184
11.6 Abundance Comparisons Among Different Planktonic Components 197
12 Ecology of the Plankton 201
12.1 Plankton Distribution 201
12.2 Ecology of Plankton 208
12.3 How Many Phytoplankton Species Coexist in a Volume of Water? "Homage to Santa Rosalia" 211
12.4 Zooplankton Nutritional Mode 211
Part IID Life in Seas and Oceans: Fundamentals of Marine Biology 215
13 Biodiversity of the Nekton 217
13.1 Species Contributing to the Nekton 217
13.2 Main Organisms and Characteristics of Nekton 218
13.3 Fishes 218
13.4 Marine Mammals 224
13.5 Cephalopods 227
13.6 Reptiles - The "Land-based" Marine Species 228
13.7 Seabirds 228
13.7 Patterns of Biodiversity in Nekton 229
14 Ecology of the Nekton 233
14.1 Introduction 233
14.2 Fishes and Formation of Fish Shoals 233
14.3 Ecology of Chondrichthyes 235
14.4 Sharks at Risk of Extinction from Indiscriminate Hunting 236
14.5 Ecology of Cephalopods 236
14.6 Marine Reptile Ecology 239
14.7 Ecology of Seabirds 241
14.8 Ecology of Marine Mammals 242
14.9 Great Migrations of Nekton 247
14.10 Role of Top Predators in Food Webs 255
15 Life Cycles and Larval Ecology 261
15.1 Life Cycles and Reproduction 261
15.2 Larval Ecology 264
15.3 Life History Strategies 267
15.4 Supply Side Ecology 270
15.5 Forms of Resistance and Benthic-pelagic Coupling 270
Part III Comparative Marine Ecology: Habitat Types, Their Biodiversity, and Their Functioning 275
16 Ecosystem Functioning I: Primary and Secondary Production 277
16.1 Introduction 277
16.2 Primary Production 277
16.3 Chemosynthetic Primary Production in the Ocean 278
16.4 Photosynthetic Primary Production 280
16.5 Secondary Production 287
16.6 Respiration 290
17 Ecosystem Functioning II: Organic Matter Recycling 293
17.1 Introduction - Extra-Specific Processes 293
17.2 Organic Matter and Detritus in the Ocean 293
17.3 Dissolved Organic Matter in the Ocean (DOM) 299
17.4 Pelagic-Benthic Coupling 300
17.5 Consequences of Organic Matter Export to the Seabed 307
18 Interspecific Interactions and Trophic Cascades 313
18.1 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning 313
18.2 Facilitation and Cooperation - Positive Interactions 315
18.3 Symbiosis 319
18.4 Complex Biotic Interactions: Trophic Networks and Cascades 323
18.5 Keystone Species 333
18.6 Trophic Cascades 333
Part IIIB Comparative Marine Ecology: Habitat Types, Their Biodiversity, and Their Functioning 341
19 Interspecific Interactions II: Negative Interactions 343
19.1 Predation 343
19.2 Methods to Escape Predation 348
19.3 Competition 349
19.4 Parasitism 351
19.5 Diseases of Marine Organisms 354
20 Intertidal Ecosystems and Lagoons 359
20.1 Rocky Intertidal Habitats 359
20.2 Transitional Environments Between Land and Ocean 372
20.3 Mangroves 380
20.4 Salt Marshes 385
20.5 Summary 388
21 Subtidal Hard Substrata Ecosystems 391
21.1 Introduction 391
21.2 Subtidal Distributions 391
21.3 Kelp Forests 394
21.4 Coral Reefs 399
21.5 Coralligenous Habitats 418
21.6 Rhodolith Beds (Maërl) 422
21.7 Underwater Caves 423
21.8 Summary 429
Part IIIC Comparative Marine Ecology: Habitat Types, Their Biodiversity, and Their Functioning 431
22 Estuarine, Seagrass, and Sedimentary Habitats 433
22.1 Estuaries 433
22.2 Seagrass Beds 438
22.3 Sedimentary Habitats 446
23 Polar Ecosystems 455
23.1 Biogeography and Characteristics 457
23.2 Biodiversity 460
23.3 Biodiversity Within Sea Ice 460
23.4 Pelagic Biodiversity 462
23.5 Fishes 464
23.6 Marine Mammals 465
23.7 Benthic Biodiversity 465
23.8 Food Webs and Functioning 466
23.9 Antarctica 467
23.10 Summary 483
24 Neritic Aquatic Ecosystems 485
24.1 Introduction 485
24.2 Zonation, Extent, and Distribution 485
24.3 Biogeography and Characteristics 485
24.4 Biological Characteristics 487
24.5 Ecosystem Functioning in the Neritic Zone 490
24.6 Fisheries Production 492
24.7 Factors Influencing Functioning of Neritic Systems 493
24.8 Summary 497
Part IIID Comparative Marine Ecology: Habitat Types, Their Biodiversity, and Their Functioning 499
25 Deep-Sea Ecosystems along Continental Margins 501
25.1 Introduction to the Deep Sea 501
25.2 Deep-Sea Biodiversity 508
25.3 Deep-Sea Habitats 511
25.4 Submarine Canyons 512
25.5 Deep-Water Corals 515
25.6 Cold Seep (Hydrocarbon-Based) Ecosystems 517
25.7 Cold Seep Biodiversity and Symbiotic Organisms 518
25.8 Hypoxic and Anoxic Systems (Dead Zones) 522
25.9 Oxygen Minimum Zones, OMZs 522
25.10 Summary 526
26 Deep Ocean Basins 531
26.1 Introduction 531
26.2 Abyssal Plains 531
26.3 Abyssal Biodiversity and Adaptations 531
26.4 Abyssal Gigantism and Dwarfism 533
26.5 Functioning of Abyssal Systems 535
26.6 Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents 541
26.7 Whale Carcasses 551
26.8 Affinities Between Vent and Seep Communities 554
26.9 Anoxic Basins 554
26.10 Ocean Trenches 556
26.11 Summary 562
27 Oceanic Ecosystems 567
27.1 Introduction 567
27.2 Factors Influencing the Life and Distribution of Pelagic Organisms 567
27.3 Classification of Pelagic Regions 571
27.4 Functional Classification of Pelagic Systems 573
27.5 Vertical Zonation in Pelagic Ecosystems 575
27.6 Biodiversity of Pelagic Systems 577
Part IV Human Impacts and Solutions for Planet Ocean: Applied Marine Biology 581
28 Human Impacts on Marine Ecosystems 583
28.1 Historical Data 583
28.2 Biodiversity Loss 587
28.3 The Main Threats to Marine Life and Ecosystems 590
28.4 Synergistic Impacts on Marine Ecosystems 597
29 Marine Biodiversity Conservation 603
29.1 Introduction 603
29.2 Conservation Objectives 603
29.3 The Third Dimension of Marine Conservation 606
29.4 Conservation Strategies 606
29.5 Marine Protected Areas 608
29.6 Cumulative Impacts and Biodiversity Conservation 613
29.7 Conservation Frameworks 614
29.8 Legal Instruments 615
29.9 Science Challenges and Solutions - Moving Science to Policy? 616
29.10 How Science Can Contribute 616
30 Restoring Marine Habitats 619
30.1 A Decade For Ecosystem Restoration 619
30.2 Defining Ecological Restoration 620
30.3 A Global Plan for Marine Ecosystem Restoration 623
30.4 Restoring Fragile Marine Habitats 623
30.5 Restoration of Coral Reefs 625
30.6 Restoration of Seagrass Meadows 626
30.7 Restoration of Macroalgal Forests 627
30.8 Restoring Ecosystem Engineers: The Case of Coralligenous Outcrops 629
30.9 Restoration of Deep-Sea Habitats 630
30.10 Perspectives of Marine Ecosystem Restoration 631
31 How Far We Have Come: Past, Present, and Future Research on the Marine Biology of Planet Ocean 633
31.1 Introduction 633
31.2 The Birth of Marine Biology 634
31.3 The History of Ocean Exploration 636
31.4 Present and Future of Marine Biology 637
31.5 Application of Marine Technologies 644
31.6 Marine Biology Research in the Next Decade 645
Glossary 649
Index 675
