Preface xv
List of Contributors xvii
Acknowledgments xix
About the Companion Website xxi
Part I Necropsy Fundamentals 1
1 Introduction to the Necropsy 3
1.1 What Is a Necropsy? 3
1.2 Why Do a Necropsy? 3
1.3 What Information Can and Cannot Be Gained from a Necropsy 3
1.4 When to Refer a Necropsy 4
2 Necropsy Basics 6
2.1 Necropsy Facilities 6
2.2 Necropsy Equipment 6
2.3 Safety Considerations 10
2.3.1 Cuts and Punctures 10
2.3.2 Slips and Falls 11
2.3.3 Zoonotic Disease 11
2.3.4 Formalin 12
2.4 The Importance of a Good History 12
2.5 The Necropsy Report 12
2.5.1 Gross Description 12
2.5.2 Gross Findings 13
2.5.2.1 Inflammatory Lesion 13
2.5.2.2 Fluid in a Body Cavity 13
2.5.2.3 Hemorrhage in an Organ 13
2.5.2.4 Neoplasm, Congenital Defect 13
2.5.3 Gross Diagnosis 13
2.5.4 Comment 13
2.6 Postmortem Changes 14
Part II The Mammalian Necropsy 17
3 The Necropsy 19
3.1 Introduction 19
3.2 Small Animal Necropsy Technique 19
3.2.1 Weigh the Body 19
3.2.2 External Examination 19
3.2.3 Reflect the Skin and Right Limbs 20
3.2.4 Open the Abdominal Cavity 23
3.2.5 Puncture the Diaphragm 23
3.2.6 Open the Thoracic Cavity 24
3.2.7 Open the Pericardium 25
3.2.8 In Situ Examination of Organs 25
3.2.9 Remove the Adrenal Glands 25
3.2.10 Remove the Pluck 26
3.2.11 Remove the Gastrointestinal Tract, Liver, and Spleen 27
3.2.12 Remove the Urogenital Organs 29
3.2.13 Remove the Head 29
3.2.14 Take Out the Eyes 29
3.2.15 Remove the Brain 30
3.2.16 Remove the Pituitary Gland 32
3.3 Modifications for Large Animals 32
3.4 Modifications for Pocket Pets 37
4 The Integumentary System 39
4.1 Anatomy Review and Species Differences 39
4.1.1 Dermis and Epidermis 39
4.1.2 Hair 39
4.1.3 Sweat Glands 41
4.1.4 Sebaceous Glands 41
4.1.5 Mammary Glands 41
4.1.6 Claws 42
4.1.7 Horns 42
4.2 Organ Examination and Sampling 42
4.2.1 Primary Lesions 43
4.2.2 Lesions That May Be Primary or Secondary 44
4.2.3 Secondary Skin Lesions 44
4.2.4 Sampling the Skin 45
4.3 Special Techniques 46
4.3.1 Cytology 47
4.3.2 Skin Scrapes 47
4.3.3 Hair Examination (Trichogram) 47
4.3.4 Hoof/Claw/Nail 47
4.4 Common Artifacts, Incidental Findings, and Postmortem Changes 47
4.5 Common, Classic, and Pathognomonic Lesions 48
5 The Musculoskeletal System 49
5.1 Anatomy Review and Species Differences 49
5.1.1 Bones and Joints 49
5.1.2 Teeth 52
5.1.3 Skeletal Muscle 53
5.2 Organ Examination and Sampling 55
5.2.1 Bones 55
5.2.2 Joints, Tendons, and Ligaments 56
5.2.3 Skeletal Muscle 56
5.3 Special Techniques 56
5.4 Common Artifacts, Incidental Findings, and Postmortem Changes 58
5.5 Classic or Pathognomonic Lesions 58
6 The Cardiovascular System 60
6.1 Anatomy Review and Species Differences 60
6.1.1 Right Heart 60
6.1.2 Left Heart 63
6.1.3 Vessels: Great and Small 63
6.1.4 Embryology, Fetal Circulation, and Congenital Defects 63
6.2 Organ Examination and Sampling 66
6.3 Special Techniques 68
6.4 Common Artifacts, Incidental Findings, and Postmortem Changes 69
6.5 Common, Classic, or Pathognomonic Lesions 71
7 The Respiratory System 72
7.1 Anatomy Review and Species Differences 72
7.2 Organ Examination and Sampling 77
7.2.1 Larynx and Trachea 77
7.2.2 Lungs 78
7.2.3 Nasal Cavity and Sinuses 79
7.3 Special Techniques 79
7.4 Common Artifacts, Incidental Findings, and Postmortem Changes 80
7.5 Common, Classic, and Pathognomonic Lesions 81
8 The Alimentary System 82
8.1 Anatomy Review and Species Differences 82
8.1.1 The Oropharyngeal Cavity 82
8.1.2 The Salivary Glands 82
8.1.3 The Esophagus 82
8.1.4 The Mesentery and Omentum 85
8.1.5 The Stomach 85
8.1.6 The Small Intestine 86
8.1.7 The Large Intestine 87
8.1.8 The Intestinal Vasculature and Nervous System 88
8.2 Organ Examination and Sampling 88
8.2.1 The Esophagus 88
8.2.2 The Gastrointestinal Tract 89
8.3 Special Techniques 90
8.4 Common Artifacts, Incidental Findings, and Postmortem Changes 90
8.5 Common, Classic, and Pathognomonic Lesions 91
9 The Liver and Pancreas 93
9.1 Anatomy Review and Species Differences 93
9.1.1 The Liver 93
9.1.2 The Pancreas 96
9.2 Organ Examination and Sampling 97
9.2.1 The Liver 97
9.2.2 The Pancreas 98
9.3 Special Techniques 99
9.4 Common Artifacts and Postmortem Changes 99
9.4.1 The Liver 99
9.4.2 The Pancreas 99
9.5 Common, Classic, and Pathognomonic Lesions 100
10 The Urogenital System 101
10.1 Anatomy Review and Species Differences 101
10.1.1 Urinary Tract 101
10.1.2 Reproductive Tract 103
10.1.3 Fetal Membranes and Placenta 103
10.1.4 Umbilical Cord 106
10.2 Organ Examination and Sampling 108
10.2.1 Kidneys 109
10.2.2 Ureters 109
10.2.3 Bladder and Urethra 109
10.2.4 Ovaries 109
10.2.5 Oviduct/Uterus/Cervix/Vagina 110
10.2.6 Testes/Epididymides/Ductus Deferens 110
10.2.7 Accessory Sex Glands 110
10.2.8 Fetus, Umbilical Cord, and Fetal Membranes 110
10.2.9 Distal Colon/Rectum/Anus 112
10.3 Special Techniques 112
10.4 Common Artifacts and Postmortem Changes 113
10.5 Common, Classic, and Pathognomonic Lesions 114
11 The Nervous System 115
11.1 Anatomy Review and Species Differences 115
11.2 Organ Examination and Sampling 116
11.2.1 Brain 116
11.2.2 Spinal Cord 120
11.2.3 Peripheral Nerves 121
11.3 Special Techniques 121
11.4 Common Artifacts, Incidental Findings, and Postmortem Changes 121
11.5 Common, Classic, and Pathognomonic Lesions 123
12 The Eye and Ear 124
12.1 Anatomy Review and Species Differences 124
12.1.1 The Eye 124
12.1.2 The Ear 125
12.2 Organ Examination and Sampling 127
12.2.1 The Eye 127
12.2.2 The Ear 128
12.3 Special Techniques 129
12.3.1 The Eye 129
12.3.2 The Ear 130
12.4 Common Artifacts, Incidental Findings, and Postmortem Changes 131
12.5 Common, Classic, or Pathognomonic Lesions 131
13 The Endocrine System 132
13.1 Anatomy Review and Species Differences 132
13.1.1 The Pituitary Gland 132
13.1.2 The Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands 132
13.1.3 The Endocrine Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans) 134
13.1.4 The Adrenal Glands 134
13.2 Organ Examination and Sampling 135
13.2.1 The Pituitary Gland 135
13.2.2 The Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands 135
13.2.3 The Endocrine Pancreas 136
13.2.4 The Adrenal Glands 136
13.3 Special Techniques 137
13.4 Common Artifacts and Postmortem Changes 137
13.5 Common, Classic, and Pathognomonic Lesions 137
14 The Lymphoreticular System 139
14.1 Anatomy Review and Species Differences 139
14.1.1 Thymus 139
14.1.2 Lymph Nodes 139
14.1.3 Spleen 141
14.1.4 Bone Marrow 143
14.1.5 Tonsils 143
14.1.6 Hemal Nodes 143
14.2 Organ Examination and Sampling 143
14.2.1 Thymus 143
14.2.2 Lymph Nodes 144
14.2.3 Spleen 145
14.2.4 Bone Marrow 146
14.2.5 Tonsils 146
14.2.6 Hemal Nodes 147
14.3 Special Techniques 147
14.4 Common Artifacts, Incidental Findings, and Postmortem Changes 147
14.5 Common, Classic, or Pathognomonic Lesions 148
Part III Nonmammalian Necropsies 149
15 Birds 151
15.1 Anatomy Review and Species Differences 151
15.1.1 Integument 151
15.1.2 Musculoskeletal System 153
15.1.3 Cardiovascular System 154
15.1.4 Respiratory Tract 154
15.1.5 Alimentary Tract 155
15.1.6 Hepatobiliary System 156
15.1.7 Urogenital System 157
15.1.8 Nervous System 157
15.1.9 Endocrine System 157
15.1.10 Lymphatic System 158
15.1.11 Special Sense Organs 159
15.2 Safety Considerations 159
15.3 Necropsy Procedure 159
15.3.1 External Examination 159
15.3.2 Skinning the Carcass 159
15.3.3 Opening the Coelomic Cavity 159
15.3.4 Initial Tissue Collection 160
15.3.5 Examination of Organ Systems 160
15.3.6 Brain, Eyes, Joints, Peripheral Nerves, and Bone Marrow 160
15.4 Special Procedures 161
15.5 Common, Classic, and Pathognomonic Lesions 161
16 Reptiles 162
16.1 Anatomy Review and Order Differences 162
16.2 Safety Considerations 166
16.3 Necropsy Procedure 166
16.3.1 External Examination 166
16.3.2 Accessing the Coelom 166
16.3.3 Internal Examination and Organ Removal 168
16.4 Common Artifacts, Incidental Findings, and Postmortem Changes 170
16.5 Common, Classic, and Pathognomonic Lesions 171
17 Amphibians 172
17.1 Anatomy Review and Order Differences 172
17.2 Larval Amphibian Anatomy 176
17.3 Safety Considerations 178
17.4 Necropsy Procedure for Adult Amphibians 178
17.5 Necropsy Procedure for Larval Amphibians 179
17.6 Fixation, Decalcification, and Trimming Considerations 179
17.7 Common Artifacts, Incidental Findings, and Postmortem Changes 180
17.8 Common, Classic, and Pathognomonic Lesions 180
18 Fish 181
18.1 Anatomy Review 181
18.2 Species Differences 182
18.3 Safety Considerations 183
18.4 Necropsy Procedure 184
18.5 Special Techniques 187
18.6 Common Artifacts, Incidental Findings, and Postmortem Changes 187
18.7 Common, Classic, and Pathognomonic Lesions 188
Part IV Additional Testing 189
19 Cytology 191
19.1 Types of Cytology Preparations 191
19.2 Making a Touch Imprint 191
19.3 Making a Bone Marrow Smear 191
19.4 Other Preparations 192
19.5 Staining 192
19.6 Atlas of Normal Tissues 193
20 Histopathology 196
20.1 Necropsy Samples for Histopathology 196
20.2 Fixation 196
20.3 Practical Guidelines to Optimize Fixation 199
21 Infectious Disease Testing 201
21.1 Test Types 201
21.2 Aerobic Culture 201
21.3 Anaerobic Culture 202
21.4 Fungal Culture 203
21.5 Fluorescent Antibody Tests 204
21.6 Pcr 204
21.7 Elisa 204
21.8 Virus Isolation 204
21.9 Fecal Examination 205
21.10 Immunohistochemistry 205
21.11 In Situ Hybridization 205
22 Toxicology Testing 206
23 Packaging and Shipping Samples 210
23.1 Packing Samples to Send to the Lab 211
Part V Special Cases 213
24 Forensic Necropsies 215
24.1 What Is a Forensic Necropsy? 215
24.2 Who Should Perform a Forensic Necropsy? 215
24.3 How Is a Forensic Necropsy Different from a Diagnostic Necropsy? 215
24.4 Before the Necropsy 216
24.5 The Forensic Necropsy Procedure 217
24.6 Forensic Necropsy Report 219
Part VI Appendices 221
Appendix 1 Normal Organ Weights (Percentage Body Weight) 223
Appendix 2 Describing Gross Lesions 233
A2. 1 Location 233
A. 2 Distribution 233
A2. 3 Number/Extent 233
A2. 4 Size/Weight 233
A2. 5 Color 233
A2. 6 Consistency 234
A2. 7 Texture 234
A2. 8 Shape 234
A2. 9 Lesion borders 234
A2. 10 Liquids 234
A2. 11 Odor 234
Appendix 3 Tissue Collection Checklists 235
Standard Set of Tissues for Histopathology 235
Additional Tissues for Histopathology, if History Warrants 235
Samples for Toxicology 236
Samples for Infectious Disease Testing 236
Abscess 236
Respiratory disease 236
Diarrhea 236
Abortion 236
Neurologic disease 236
Appendix 4 Online Resources 237
Index 239
