Foreword xv
Preface xvii
About the Authors xix
Acknowledgements xxi
List of Abbreviations xxiii
1 A Technology that Changed the World 1
1.1 Social and Economic Impact of Mobile Communications 2
1.1.1 Social Impact 3
1.1.2 Economic Impact 5
1.2 A Brief History of Mobile (Cellular) Communications 8
1.3 The Journey of Mobile Communications as Seen from User and Operator Perspectives 18
References 20
2 The Mobile Telecoms Ecosystem 23
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Telecommunications Ecosystem 24
2.3 Regulation and Spectrum 26
2.3 Standardisation 27
2.4 Research 28
2.5 End Users 30
2.6 The Role of Operators (Carriers) 30
2.7 The Role of Vendors/Manufacturers 31
2.8 The Role of Standard Bodies and Regulators 31
2.9 Telecoms Ecosystem Dynamics and Behaviour 32
2.10 5G Ecosystem 35
2.10.1 Datacentres 36
2.10.2 RF Chip and Component Manufacturers 36
2.10.3 Telecom Operators (Carriers) 36
2.10.4 Infrastructure Service Providers 36
2.10.5 Gaming 37
2.10.6 Over The Top (OTT) 37
2.10.7 Low-Cost Processing Unit Manufacturer 37
2.10.8 Investors 38
2.10.9 Potential Disruptions in the 5G EcoSystem 38
2.11 Summary 41
References 41
3 The Business of a Mobile Operator 43
3.1 Business Challenges Faced by Operators 43
3.1.1 Third-Party Costs 43
3.1.2 Radio Access Network Costs 45
3.1.3 Transmission Costs 49
3.1.4 Physical Locations 53
3.1.5 Power Costs for Multiple Technologies 54
3.2 MVNOs - Mobile Virtual Network Operators 56
3.2.1 Economics of an MVNO 57
3.2.2 Modelling MVNOs and SPs 59
3.3 Operator Business around International Roaming 63
3.3.1 The EU Roaming Regulation 'Roam like at Home' 64
3.3.2 Covid-19 Impact on Roaming Revenues 66
3.4 The Likely Operator Business Models in 5G 66
3.5 Conclusion 69
References 69
4 Why Standards Matter 73
4.1 The Creation of a New 'G' 74
4.1.1 Research 74
4.1.2 Standardisation 75
4.1.3 Commercialisation 77
4.1.4 Continued Innovation 79
4.1.5 Intellectual Property as a Metric and Political Currency 81
4.2 Shifting Political Power and the Making of an Ecosystem 81
4.2.1 2G GSM - Europe Leads 82
4.2.2 3G UMTS - Universal (Except Not Quite) 85
4.2.3 4G EPS - Avoiding Old Mistakes (and Making New Ones?) 89
4.2.4 5G NR - New World Order? 94
4.3 Future Standards 97
References 99
5 The Mobile Network 101
5.1 Mobile Network Architecture 101
5.2 The Radio Access Network (RAN) 103
5.2.1 Synchronisation 104
5.2.2 Broadcast Messages 104
5.2.3 Paging 104
5.2.4 Random Access 105
5.2.5 Scheduling 105
5.2.6 Power Control 106
5.2.7 Handover 106
5.2.8 Link Adaptation 108
5.2.9 HARQ, Error Correction 108
5.2.10 MIMO Techniques 109
5.2.11 The Control/data Channels and Reference Signals 109
5.3 The Core Network (CN) 110
5.3.1 Circuit Switching and Packet Switching Networks 110
5.3.2 Tunnelling and Encapsulation 111
5.4 The Protocol Stack 112
5.4.1 The OSI Model of 7 Layer Protocol Stack 113
5.4.2 Protocol Stacks for Mobile Communications 115
5.5 The 2G Network 118
5.5.1 The Network Architecture of 2G 118
5.5.2 The GSM Frame Structure 120
5.5.3 GSM (And GPRS) RAN Features 122
5.5.4 2G Evolutions 124
5.6 The 3G Network 124
5.6.1 The UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) 125
5.6.2 UTRAN Features 129
5.6.3 The IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) 130
5.6.4 Issues with the UMTS Air Interface 131
5.6.5 3G Evolution to HSPA 132
5.7 The 4G Network 133
5.7.1 LTE System Architecture 134
5.7.2 LTE Protocol Layers 136
5.7.3 LTE Multiple Access Schemes 139
5.7.4 LTE Frame Structures 142
5.7.5 LTE Reference Signals 144
5.7.6 LTE main RAN procedures 144
5.7.7 Main Features of Subsequent LTE Releases 148
5.8 The 5G Network 150
5.8.1 5G-NR Deployment Options 152
5.8.2 5G-NR System Architecture 153
5.8.3 Spectrum Options for 5G-NR 154
5.8.4 5G-NR Protocol Layers 155
5.8.5 The 5G-NR Air Interface 158
5.8.6 5G-NR RAN procedures 160
5.8.7 5G-NR Reference Signals 161
5.8.8 5G Core - Concepts and Functionalities 162
5.9 The Centralisation and Virtualisation of the Mobile Network 163
5.9.1 The Centralised RAN (C-RAN) 164
5.9.2 NFV (Virtualised Network Functions) and SDN (Software Defined Networking) Concepts 166
5.10 Conclusions 169
References 170
6 Basics of Network Dimensioning and Planning 173
6.1 Properties of Signal Strength, Noise and Interference 174
6.2 The Link Budget and Coverage Dimensioning 178
6.2.1 The Transmit Power 178
6.2.2 The Antenna Gains 178
6.2.3 Transmit and Receive Diversity Gains 179
6.2.4 The EIRP 179
6.2.5 Modelling the Path Loss 180
6.2.6 Modelling the Log Normal Fade Margin 183
6.2.7 The FFM 184
6.2.8 Building Penetration Loss 185
6.2.9 Building the Link Budget 185
6.3 Capacity Dimensioning 187
6.3.1 The Capacity Demand Estimation Process 188
6.3.2 Capacity Demand Estimation - Worked Example 189
6.3.3 Resource Provision - Worked Example 194
6.4 The Dimensioning of Backhaul Links 199
6.4.1 LTE Backhaul Provision - General Aspects 200
6.4.2 LTE Backhaul Provision - Capacity Aspects 201
6.4.3 New Developments in Backhaul/fronthaul Provision 207
6.5 The Network Planning Process 208
6.5.1 The Network Area Maps 208
6.5.2 Site Placement and Antenna Radiation Patterns 209
6.5.3 Traffic Modelling and Capacity Provision Information 210
6.5.4 Fine Tuning and Optimisation 212
6.6 A Look at 5G Networks 213
References 216
7 Spectrum - The Life Blood of Radio Communications 219
7.1 Introduction 219
7.2 Spectrum Management and Its Objectives 219
7.2.1 The Role of the ITU 220
7.2.2 Regional Bodies 221
7.2.3 National Regulators and Their Roles 222
7.2.4 The Spectrum Management Process 223
7.3 Spectrum Allocations 225
7.4 Spectrum Assignment 225
7.4.1 Administrative Assignments 226
7.4.2 Market Based Mechanisms 226
7.4.3 Beauty Contests 227
7.5 Spectrum Licensing 228
7.5.1 Spectrum for Mobile Services 228
7.5.2 Dimensions of Spectrum Sharing 233
7.6 Spectrum Bands Considered for 5G 235
7.6.1 Example Illustration of Spectrum Deployment Strategy for MNOs 236
7.6.2 Local Access Spectrum 237
References 238
8 Fundamentals of Digital Communication 241
8.1 Basic Digital Communication System Overview 241
8.2 Encoding Information 243
8.2.1 Sampling 243
8.2.2 Source Coding 245
8.2.3 Channel Coding 246
8.3 Signal Representation and Modulation 251
8.3.1 Mapping Bits to Signals 253
8.3.2 Signal Spectrum 256
8.4 Signal Demodulation and Detection 257
8.4.1 System Model and Sources of Noise 257
8.4.2 Demodulation 258
8.4.3 Detection 260
8.5 Performance Analysis 260
8.5.1 Capacity 260
8.5.2 Bit-error Rate and Symbol-error Rate 262
8.6 Communication Through Dispersive Channels 264
8.6.1 Time-domain Equalization and Detection 264
8.6.2 Frequency-domain Equalisation 267
8.7 Multiple Access: A Second Look 272
8.7.1 CDMA and 3G 272
8.7.2 OFDMA/SC-FDMA and 4G 275
8.7.3 NOMA and 5G 277
8.8 System Impairments 278
8.8.1 Carrier Phase Estimation 279
8.8.2 Timing Recovery 280
8.8.3 Channel Estimation 280
8.9 Further Reading 282
Notes 282
References 283
9 Early Technical Challenges and Innovative Solutions 285
9.1 Wireless Channels: The Challenge 285
9.1.1 Propagation 285
9.1.2 Fading and Multipath 287
9.1.3 Signal-to-Noise Ratio in Fading Channels 293
9.2 Multicarrier Modulation: A Second Look 295
9.2.1 Coded OFDM 295
9.2.2 Capacity and Adaptive Modulation 295
9.3 Diversity 297
9.3.1 Macro Diversity 297
9.3.2 Time Diversity 298
9.3.3 Frequency Diversity 300
9.3.4 Spatial Diversity 300
9.4 Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) 307
9.4.1 Capacity 308
9.4.2 MIMO Transmission Techniques 309
9.4.3 MIMO Reception Techniques 311
9.4.4 MIMO vs Multicarrier 312
9.4.5 Multi-User and Massive MIMO 313
References 315
10 Small Cells - an Evolution or a Revolution? 317
10.1 Introduction 317
10.2 Small Cells Concept Formation 319
10.3 Multi-tier Cellular Networks/HetNets Architecture 320
10.3.1 Interference Management 320
10.3.2 Mobility Management 321
10.3.3 Backhaul 322
10.4 Interference Management and Modelling in Small cell/HetNets 322
10.4.1 Interference Management 322
10.4.2 Interference Modelling 325
10.5 Mobility Management 329
10.6 Backhaul 332
10.7 Small-Cell Deployment 335
10.8 Future Evolution of Small Cells 339
10.9 Conclusion 342
References 342
11 Today's and Tomorrow's Challenges 345
11.1 The Capacity Crunch 345
11.1.1 A Historical Perspective 345
11.1.2 Methods for Capacity Enhancement 346
11.1.3 Impact on Transport and Core Networks 349
11.1.4 Complementary Technologies 352
11.2 Increasing Network Complexity 354
11.2.1 The Self-Organising Networks 355
11.2.2 Network Automation in 5G 359
11.2.3 The Business Rationale for Network Automation 361
11.3 The Need for Greener and Lower EMF Networks 362
11.3.1 Greener Mobile Networks 362
11.3.3 Green Manufacturing and Recycling 364
11.3.4 Applications of Mobile Networks for Energy Reduction 364
11.3.5 Electromagnetic Field Exposure and Mobile Networks 365
11.4 Covering the Unserved and Under-served Regions 368
11.4.1 New Access Technologies 368
11.4.2 Initiatives Driven by Government Funding and Policy 371
Reference 373
12 The Changing Face of Mobile Communications 377
12.1 Changes with Centralisation and Virtualisation of the Mobile Network 377
12.2 Supporting Multiple Vertical Industries through 5G 380
12.2.1 Automotive Sector 380
12.2.2 Smart City 383
12.2.3 Industry 4.0 386
12.2.4 Critical Communications Sector 388
12.2.5 Other Vertical Areas under Development 391
12.3 The Continuous Evolution of the Mobile Device 393
12.4 What Will 6G Look Like? 395
12.4.1 Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence 395
12.4.2 Blockchain and the Internet of Things 396
12.4.3 Evolutions in Cloud and Edge Computing 397
12.4.4 Advanced Hybrid Beamforming 398
12.4.5 New Modulation Schemes 399
12.4.6 Tera-Hertz (Thz) Communications 399
12.4.7 Orbital Angular Momentum 401
12.4.8 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 401
12.4.9 Quantum Technology 401
References 402
Index 407
