Preface xvii
Prologue xix
Part I Transport Phenomena 1
1 Mass Balances 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Theory 5
1.3 Additional Material 9
Reference 10
2 Energy Balances 11
2.1 Definitions 11
2.2 The General Energy Balance 12
2.3 Applications of the General Energy Balance 13
2.3.1 Pump 13
2.3.2 Air Oxidation of Cumene 14
2.4 The Mechanical Energy Equation 17
2.5 Applications of the Mechanical Energy Balance 18
References 22
3 Viscosity 23
3.1 Definition 23
3.2 Newtonian Fluids 25
3.3 Non-Newtonian Fluids 25
3.3.1 The Viscosity is a Function of the Temperature and the Shear Rate 25
3.3.2 The Viscosity is a Function of Time 28
3.4 Viscoelasticity 29
3.5 Viscosity of Newtonian Fluids 29
3.5.1 Gases 29
3.5.2 Liquids 30
References 32
4 Laminar Flow 33
4.1 Steady-state Flow Through a Circular Tube 33
4.2 Rotational Viscosimeters 37
4.3 Additional Remarks 39
5 Turbulent Flow 41
5.1 Velocity Distribution 41
5.2 The Reynolds Number 42
5.3 Pressure Drop in Horizontal Conduits 42
5.4 Pressure Drop in Tube Systems 45
5.5 Flow Around Obstacles 47
5.5.1 Introduction 47
5.5.2 Dispersed Spherical Particles 48
5.6 Terminal Velocity of a Swarm of Particles 53
5.7 Flow Resistance of Heat Exchangers with Tubes 53
References 54
6 Flow Meters 57
6.1 Introduction 57
6.2 Fluid-energy Activated Flow Meters 57
6.2.1 Oval-gear Flow Meter 57
6.2.2 Orifice Meter 57
6.2.3 Venturi Meter 60
6.2.4 Rotameter 60
6.3 External Stimulus Flow Meters 61
6.3.1 Thermal Flow Meter 61
6.3.2 Ultrasonic Flow Meters 62
References 62
7 Case Studies Flow Phenomena 63
7.1 Energy Consumption: Calculation of the Power Potential of a High Artificial Lake 63
7.2 Estimation of the Size of a Pump Motor 64
8 Heat Conduction 67
8.1 Introduction 67
8.2 Thermal Conductivity 68
8.3 Steady-state Heat Conduction 71
8.4 Heating or Cooling of a Solid Body 75
References 78
9 Convective Heat Transfer 79
9.1 Heat Exchangers 79
9.2 Heat Transfer Correlations 84
References 86
10 Heat Transfer by Radiation 87
10.1 Introduction 87
10.2 IR 87
10.3 Dielectric Heating 91
10.3.1 General Aspects 91
10.3.2 RF Heating 93
10.3.3 Microwave Heating 94
References 97
11 Case Studies Heat Transfer 99
11.1 Bulk Materials Heat Exchanger 99
11.2 Heat Exchanger 100
11.3 Surface Temperature of the Sun 102
11.4 Gas IR Textile Drying 102
11.5 Heat Loss by IR Radiation 103
11.6 Microwave Drying of a Pharmaceutical Product 103
References 104
12 Steady-state Diffusion 105
12.1 Introduction and Definition of the Diffusion Coefficient 105
12.2 The Diffusion Coefficient 106
12.3 Steady-state Diffusion 107
References 112
13 Convective Mass Transfer 113
13.1 Partial and Overall Mass Transfer Coefficients 113
13.2 Mass Transfer Between a Fixed Wall and a Flowing Medium 116
13.3 Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer at Convective Drying 118
References 121
14 Case Studies Mass Transfer 123
14.1 Equimolar Diffusion 123
14.2 Diffusion through a Stagnant Body 123
14.3 Sublimation of a Naphthalene Sphere 124
Reference 126
Notation I 127
Greek Symbols 131
Part II Mixing and Stirring 135
15 Introduction to Mixing and Stirrer Types 137
References 142
16 Mixing Time 143
16.1 Introduction 143
16.2 Approach of Beek et al. 144
16.3 Approach of Zlokarnik 147
References 151
17 Power Consumption 153
References 156
18 Suspensions 157
18.1 Introduction 157
18.2 Power Consumption 162
18.3 Further Work 163
References 164
19 Liquid/Liquid Dispersions 165
Reference 167
20 Gas Distribution 169
20.1 Introduction 169
20.2 Turbine 169
20.3 Pitched-Blade Turbine Pumping Downward 175
20.4 Turbine Scale Up 176
20.5 Batch Air Oxidation of a Hydrocarbon 177
20.6 Remark 178
Appendix 20.1 178
References 179
21 Physical Gas Absorption 181
21.1 Introduction 181
21.2 k l . a Measurements 181
21.3 Power Consumption on Scaling Up 184
21.4 Remarks 184
References 184
22 Heat Transfer in Stirred Vessels 185
22.1 Introduction 185
22.2 Heat Transfer Jacket Wall/Process Liquid 185
22.3 Heat Transfer Coil Wall/Process Liquid 188
22.4 Heat Transfer Jacket Medium/Vessel Wall 190
22.5 Heat Transfer Coil Medium/Coil Wall 192
22.6 Batch Heating and Cooling 192
References 193
23 Scale Up of Mixing 195
23.1 Introduction 195
23.2 Homogenization 196
23.3 Suspensions 198
23.4 Liquid/Liquid Dispersions 198
23.5 Gas Distribution 198
23.6 k l . a 198
23.7 Heat Transfer 199
References 199
24 Case Studies Mixing and Stirring 201
24.1 Mixing Time-Comparison of Stirrers 201
24.2 Mixing Time-Scale Up of Process 202
24.3 Suspensions 202
24.4 Air Oxidation Optimization 203
24.5 Calculating k l . a 205
24.6 Heating Toluene in a Stirred Vessel 206
24.7 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient of a Jacketed Reactor 207
24.8 Scale Up of Mixing 209
References 210
Notation II 211
Greek Symbols 213
Part III Chemical Reactors 215
25 Chemical Reaction Engineering-An Introduction 217
25.1 Fluidized Catalytic Cracking (FCC) 217
25.2 Kinetic Rate Data and Transport Phenomena 218
25.3 Reactor Types 219
25.4 Batch Reactions Versus Continuous Reactions 221
25.5 Adiabatic Temperature Rise 222
25.6 Recycle 223
25.7 Process Intensification 224
References 226
26 A Few Typical Chemical Reactors 227
26.1 The Carbo-V-Process of Choren 227
26.2 Coal Gasification 227
26.3 Biofuels 229
26.4 Pyrogenic Silica 230
26.5 Microwaves 231
27 The Order of a Reaction 233
27.1 The Rate of a Reaction 233
27.2 Introductory Remarks on the Order of a Reaction 233
27.3 First-Order Reaction 234
27.4 Second-Order Reactions 236
References 239
28 The Rate of Chemical Reactions as a Function of Temperature 241
28.1 Arrhenius' Law 241
28.2 How to Influence Chemical Reaction Rates 242
Reference 243
29 Chemical Reaction Engineering-A Quantitative Approach 245
29.1 Introduction 245
29.2 Batch Reactor 245
29.3 Plug Flow Reactor 247
29.4 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR) 248
29.5 Reactor Choice 251
29.6 Staging 251
29.7 Reversible Reactions 253
30 A Plant Modification: From Batchwise to Continuous Manufacture 257
30.1 Introduction 257
30.2 Batchwise Production 257
30.3 Continuous Manufacture 257
Reference 258
31 Intrinsic Continuous Process Safeguarding 259
31.1 Summary 259
31.2 Introduction 259
31.3 The Production of Organic Peroxides 260
31.4 Intrinsically Safe Processes 260
31.5 Intrinsic Process Safeguarding 261
31.6 Extrinsic Process Safeguarding 261
31.7 Additional Remarks 261
31.8 Practical Approach 262
31.9 Examples 263
References 265
32 Reactor Choice and Scale Up 267
32.1 Introduction 267
32.2 Parallel Reactions 267
32.3 Physical Effects 269
33 Case Studies Chemical Reaction Engineering 271
33.1 Order of a Reaction 271
33.2 Chemical Reaction Rate as a Function of Temperature 273
33.3 Reactor Size 273
33.4 Reversible Reactions 274
33.5 Competing Reactions 276
33.6 The Hydrolysis of Acetic Acid Anhydride 276
33.7 Cumene Air Oxidation 277
References 278
Notation III 279
Greek Symbols 280
Part IV Distillation 281
34 Continuous Distillation 283
34.1 Introduction 283
34.2 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium 283
34.3 The Fractionating Column 286
34.4 The Number of Trays Required 288
34.5 The Importance of the Reflux Ratio 292
34.6 A Typical Continuous Industrial Distillation 293
References 294
35 Design of Continuous Distillation Columns 295
35.1 Sieve Tray Columns 295
35.2 Packed Columns 299
Note 302
References 302
36 Various Types of Distillation 303
36.1 Batch Distillation 303
36.2 Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation 309
36.3 Steam Distillation 311
References 312
37 Case Studies Distillation 313
37.1 McCabe-Thiele Diagram 313
37.2 Diameter of a Sieve Tray Column and Sieve Tray Pressure Loss 316
37.3 The Distillation of Wine 317
37.4 Steam Distillation 320
Reference 321
Notation IV 323
Greek Symbols 325
Part V Liquid Extraction 327
38 Liquid Extraction - Part 1 329
38.1 Introduction 329
38.2 The Distribution Coefficient 333
38.3 Calculation of the Number of Theoretical Stages in Extraction Operations 334
References 336
39 Liquid Extraction - Part 2 337
39.1 Calculation of the Number of Transfer Units in Extraction Operations 337
Reference 342
40 Flooding 343
40.1 General 343
References 345
41 The Two Liquids Exchanging a Component Are Partially Miscible 347
41.1 Triangular Coordinates 347
41.2 Formation of One Pair of Partially Miscible Liquids 348
41.3 Continuous Countercurrent Multiple-contact Extraction 353
References 355
42 Case Studies Liquid Extraction 357
42.1 A Series of Centrifugal Extractors 357
42.2 Extraction by Means of An Ionic Liquid 359
42.3 Overall Transfer Coefficient/Height of a Transfer Unit 360
42.4 Calculation of the Column Height 362
42.5 Two Partially Miscible Liquids Exchange a Component 363
References 365
Notation V 367
Greek Symbols 369
Part VI Absorption of Gases 371
43 Absorption of Gases 373
43.1 Introduction 373
43.2 Determination of the Number of Theoretical Stages at Absorption of Gases 374
43.3 Estimation of the Diameter of an Absorption Column for Natural Gas 377
43.4 The Absorption of Carbon Dioxide 378
43.5 Design of Absorption Columns 379
References 381
Notation VI 383
Greek Symbols 384
Part VII Membranes 385
44 Membranes-An Introduction 387
44.1 General 387
44.2 Membranes 387
44.3 Three Pressure-Driven Membrane Separation Processes for Aqueous Systems 389
44.4 A Membrane Separation Process for Aqueous Solutions Which Is Driven by an Electrical Potential Difference 390
44.5 Gas Separation 391
44.6 Pervaporation 392
44.7 Medical Applications 392
44.8 Additional Remarks 393
References 394
45 Microfiltration 395
45.1 Introduction 395
45.2 Membrane Types 396
45.3 Membrane Characterization 397
45.4 Filter Construction 397
45.5 Operational Practice 398
References 399
46 Ultrafiltration 401
46.1 Introduction 401
46.2 Membrane Characterization 401
46.3 Concentration Polarization and Membrane Fouling 402
46.4 Membrane Cleaning 406
46.5 Ultrafiltration Membrane Systems 407
46.6 Continuous Systems 408
46.7 Applications 409
References 411
47 Reverse Osmosis 413
47.1 Osmosis 413
47.2 Reverse Osmosis 414
47.3 Theoretical Background 415
47.4 Concentration Polarization 417
47.5 Membrane Specifications 417
47.6 Membrane Qualities 417
47.7 Reverse Osmosis Units 418
47.8 Membrane Fouling Control and Cleaning 419
47.9 Applications 420
47.10 Nanofiltration Membranes 421
47.11 Conclusions and Future Directions 421
References 421
48 Electrodialysis 423
48.1 Introduction 423
48.2 Functioning of Ion-Exchange Membranes 424
48.3 Types of Ion Exchange Membranes 424
48.4 Transport in Electrodialysis Membranes 425
48.5 Power Consumption 427
48.6 System Design 427
48.7 Applications 428
References 429
49 Gas Separation 431
49.1 Introduction 431
49.2 Theoretical Background 431
49.3 Process Design 436
49.4 Applications 437
References 441
50 Case Studies Membranes 443
50.1 Gel Formation 443
50.2 Osmotic Pressure 443
50.3 Membrane Gas Separation 444
References 445
Notation VII 447
Greek Symbols 448
Part VIII Crystallization, Liquid/Solid Separation, and Drying 449
51 Crystallization 451
51.1 Introduction 451
51.2 Solubility 451
51.3 Nucleation 452
51.4 Crystal Growth 453
51.5 Crystallizers and Crystallizer Operations 454
51.6 The Population Density Balance 457
51.7 Interpretation of the Results of Population Density Balances 463
References 466
52 Liquid/Solid separation 467
52.1 Introduction 467
52.2 Filtration 467
52.2.1 Introduction 467
52.2.2 Cake Filtration 468
52.2.3 Filter Aids 471
52.2.4 Deep-Bed Filtration 472
52.2.5 Filtration Equipment 472
52.3 Centrifugation 475
Reference 478
53 Convective Drying 479
53.1 Introduction 479
53.2 Four Important Continuous Convective Dryers in the Chemical Industry 480
53.3 A First Example of Convective Drying 482
53.4 The Adiabatic Saturation Temperature 483
53.5 The Wet-Bulb Temperature 485
53.6 The Mollier Diagram 486
53.7 Drying Vacuum Pan Salt in a Plug Flow Fluid-Bed Dryer 488
54 Design of a Flash Dryer 489
54.1 Introduction 489
54.2 Design 489
Reference 491
55 Contact Drying 493
55.1 Introduction 493
55.2 Scaling Up of a Conical Vacuum Dryer 493
55.3 An Additional Remark Concerning Vacuum Drying 497
55.4 Testing a Small Plate Dryer 498
55.5 Testing a Continuous Paddle Dryer 500
55.6 Scale Up of a Thin-Film Dryer 503
Reference 506
56 Case Studies Crystallization, Liquid/Solid Separation, and Drying 507
56.1 Ultracentrifuges 507
56.2 Le 2/3 507
56.3 Convective Drying- 1 508
56.4 Convective Drying- 2 509
56.5 Analysis of a Spray-Drying Operation 509
56.6 Estimation of the Size of a Contact Dryer 512
References 515
Notation VIII 517
Greek Symbols 519
Part IX Gas/Solid Separation 521
57 Introduction 523
58 Cyclones 525
58.1 Introduction 525
58.2 Sizing and Process Data 525
References 527
59 Fabric Filters 529
59.1 Introduction 529
59.2 Fabrics 529
59.3 Baghouse Construction and Operation 531
Reference 532
60 Scrubbers 533
60.1 Introduction 533
60.2 Packed-Bed Scrubbers 534
60.3 Venturi Scrubbers 535
60.4 Mechanical Scrubbers 536
References 537
61 Electrostatic Precipitators 539
61.1 Introduction 539
61.2 Principle of Operation 540
61.3 Process Data 540
61.4 Construction 540
Reference 542
Notation IX 543
Greek Symbols 543
Index 545
